Dane szczegółowe książki
An Introduction to language / Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, Robert
Autorzy
Tytuł
An Introduction to language
Wydawnictwo
Orlando: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1993
Numer wydania
5
ISBN
0-03-054983-3
Spis treści
pokaż spis treści
Preface vii
PART1
The Nature of Human Language
CHAPTER 1
What Is Language?
Linguistic Knowledge 4
Knowledge of the Sound System 4 Knowledge of the
Meaning of Words 5 The Creativity of Linguistic
Knowledge 8 Knowledge of Sentences and Nonscntcnces
10
Linguistic Knowledge and Performance 11
What Is Grammar? 13 Descriptive
Grammars 13 Prescriptive Grammars
14 Teaching Grammars 16
Language Universals 17
Animal "Languages" 18 "Talking" Parrots
19 The Birds and the Bees 20
In the Beginning: The Origin of Language 22 God's Gift to
Mankind? 23 The First Language 23 Human Invention
or the Cries of Nature 24
What We Know About Language 25 Summary 26
References for Further Reading 28 Exercises 29
PART 2
Grammatical Aspects of Language
CHAPTER 2
Morphology: The Words of Language
Dictionaries 36
Contents
41
Classes of Words 3S Lexical
Content Words Function Words
39
Word Sets 39
Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning Bound and
Free Morphemes 42
CHAPTER 3
Prefixes and Suffixes Infixes 44
Circumfixcs 45 Huckles and
Ceives 45
Rules of Word Formation 47 Lexical Gaps
48 Derivational Morphology 48 "Pullet
Surprises" 51
Word Coinage 53
Compounds 53
Meaning of Compounds
Universality of Compounding
Acronyms 56 Blends 56 Back-
Formations 57 Abbreviations 57
Words from Names 57
Grammatical Morphemes 59 Inflectional
Morphemes 60
Exceptions and Supplctions 62 Morphology
and Syntax 63
Summary 64
References for Further Reading
Exercises 66
Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language
Grammatical or Ungrammatical 73 What Grammatical ity Is
Based On 73 What Grammaticality Is Not Based On 75
What Else Do You Know About Syntax? 76
Sentence Structure 78 Syntactic Categories 79
Phrase Structure Trees XI More Phrase
Structure Trees S3 The Infinitude of Language
85
Contents
Phrase Structure Rules 87 Growing Trees 89
Trees That Won't Grow 92 More Phrase
Structure Rules 95 Heads of Phrases 96
The Lexicon 97
Subcategorization 98 More Lexical
Differences 99
Transformational Rules 100 Long Distance
Relationships 103 "Wh-" Sentences 104
Recursion Revisited 105
More About Sentence Structure 108
Types of Language 110
Summary 1 12
References for Further Reading 113
Exercises 115
Semantics: The Meanings ofLangua
Word Meanine 124
Semantic Properties 124
Evidence for Semantic Properties 126 Semantic
Properties and the Lexicon 127 More Semantic
Relationships 128
Homonyms and Ambiguity 128
Synonyms and Paraphrases 131
Antonyms 132
Formation of Antonyms
Names 134
Phrase and Sentence Meaning Combining Words into
Sentences Thematic Roles 139 Semantics and Syntax
142 The "Truth" of Sentences 145 Sense and Reference
147
137
When Rules Are Broken 148 Anomaly: No Sense
and Nonsense Metaphor 150 Idioms 152
Discourse Meaning 154
Contents
CHAPTER 5
Pronouns 154
Missing Parts 156
The Articles "the" and "a" 156
Maxims of Conversation 157
Pragmatics 158 Speech Acts 159
Presuppositions 160 Deixis 162
Summary 164
References for Further Reading 166
Exercises 167
Phonetics: The Sounds of Language
Sound Segments 176
Identity of Speech Sounds 178
Spelling and Speech 180 The Phonetic
Alphabet 181
Articulatory Phonetics 186 Airstream
Mechanisms 186 Voiced and Voiceless
Sounds 187 Nasal and Oral Sounds 189
Places of Articulation 191
Labials 191
Interdentals 192
Alveolars 192
Velars 192
Palatals 192
Coronals 192 Manners of Articulation 193
Stops and Continuants 193
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds 194
Fricatives 195
Affricates 196
Liquids 197
Glides 197
Syllabic Sounds 198 Vowels 199
Tongue Position 200
Lip Rounding 200
Diphthongs 202
Nasalisation of Vowels 202 Prosodic Supra-
segmental Features 203
Contents
CHAPTER 6
Long and Short (Tense and Lax Vowels) 203 "lone and
Intonation 204 Diacritics 206
Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants 2C
Summary 210
References for Further Reading 211
Exercises 212
Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language 217 Minimal Pairs
2 IS Free Variation 220
Distinctive Features 221 Binary Valued Features 221
Sounds That Are Not Phonemes 222 Phonemes.
Phones, and Allophoncs 223
Complementary Distribution 224 Predictability of
Redundant Features 225 Unpredictability of Phonemic
Features 227
More on Redundancies 22s!
Sequential Constraints 230 Syllable
Structure 231
Natural Classes 232
Major Class Features 233
Obstruents and Sonorants 233 ] +
consonantal] Sounds 234 | + syllabic]
Sounds 234 Sibilants 2.35
Feature Specilications lor American English Consonants and
Vowels 235
More on Prosodie Phonology 237
Intonation 237
Word Stress 23S
Sentence and Phrase Stress 239
The Rules of Phonology 241
The Formali/.ation ot Phonological Rules
Assimilation Rules 244
Dissimilation Rules 246
Feature Addition Rules 247
Segment Deletion and Addition Rules 24S
Movement (Metathesis) Rules 249
Contents
From One to Many and from Many to One 250
The Function of Phonological Rules 253
Slips ot the Tongue: Evidence tor Phonological Rules
The F'ron uncial ion of Morphemes 255 Morphophoneinics
257 More Sequential Constraints 25')
Summary 261
References for Further Reading 263
Exercises 265
PARTS
Social Aspects of Language
CHAPTER 7
Language in Society
Dialects 275
Regional Dialects 276 Accents
277
Dialects of English 27S
Phonological Differences 279 Lexical
Differences 2SO Dialect Atlases 2SO
Syntactic Differences 2X1
The "Standard" 283 Language
Purists 2S3 Banned Languages
2X4
Black English 2^7
Phonology of Black Lnglish 2! Syntactic Differences
between BL and SAL 1W
Double Negative 2S9
Deletion of the Verb "Be" IW
Habitual "Be" 2W History of
Black Lnglish
Hispanic English 292 Lingua
Erancas 294
Pidgins and Creoles 295 Pidgins
295 Creoles 29S
Styles. Slang, and Jargon 299
Styles 299
Contents
CHAPTER 8
Slang 300 Jargon and Argot
301
Taboo or Not Taboo 302 Euphemisms 304
Racial and National Epithets 306
Language and Sexism 306
Marked and Unmarked Forms 307 The Generic
"He" 309 More Asymmetries 310 Female
Language 310
Summary 312
References for Further Reading 313
Exercises 315
Language Change: The Syllables of Time
The Regularity of Sound Change 322
Phonological Change 324 Phonological
Rules 325 The Great Vowel Shift
326
Morphological Change 327 Syntactic
Change 330
Lexical Change 332 New Words
332 Borrowings 332 Loss of
Words 336 Semantic Change
336
Broadening 336
Narrowing 337
Mcanini; Shifts 337
337
Reconstructing "Dead" Languages The
Comparative Method 341 Historical
Evidence 342
344
The Genetic Classification of Languages Why
Do Languages Change? 348 Languages of
the World 350 Summary 355
References for Further Reading 355
Exercises 357
Contents
CHAPTER 9
Writing: The ABCs of Language
The History of Writing 364 Pictograms and
Ideograms 364 Cuneiform Writing 366 The
Rebus Principle 368 From Hieroglyphs to the
Alphabet 369
Modern Writing Systems 370 Word Writing
371 Syllabic Writing 373 Alphabetic Writing
374
Writing and Speech 377
Spelling 379
Spelling Pronunciations 383
Summary 384
References for Further Reading 385
Exercises 386
PART 4
Biological Aspects of Language
CHAPTER 10
Language Acquisition
Stages in Language Acquisition 394 The First Sounds
395 Babbling 396 First Words 397 The Two-Word
Stage 399 From Telegraph to Infinity 400
Theories of Child Language Acquisition 402 Do Children Learn by
Imitation? 402 Do Children Learn by Reinforcement? 403
Children Form Rules and Construct a Grammar 404 Errors or
Rules? 406
Inflectional Errors 407
Phonological and Morphological Rule Acquisition The
Acquisition of Syntax 408 Learning the Meaning of Words
410
The Biological Foundations of Language Acquisition The
"Innateness Hypothesis" 411 The "Critical Age Hypothesis"
413
Contents xv
The Acquisition of Bird Songs 414
Sign Languages: Evidence for the Biology of Language 415 American
Sign Language (ASL) 416 The Acquisition of ASL 420
Learning a Second (or Third or . . .) Language 421 Theories of Second
Language Acquisition 423
Can Chimps Learn Human Language? 424 Gua 426 Viki
426 Washoe 426 Sarah 427
Learning Ycrkish 427 Koko 427
Nim Chimpsky 427 Clever Hans
428 Kan/.i 429
Summary 430
References for Further Reading 432
Exercises 433
Human Processing: Brain, Mind, and Language
The Human Brain 437
The Two Sides of the Brain 437 Evidence for
Brain Lateral ization 441 Aphasia Studies 442
Split Brains 446 More Laterali/.ation Evidence
449
The Evolution of Language 450 The
Autonomy of Language 451
The Linguistic Mind at Work: Human Language Processing
453 Comprehension 454
Comprehension Models and Experimental Studies 455 Speech
Production 458
Planning Units 459
Lexical Selection 460
Application and Misapplication of Rules 461
Nonlinguistic Influences 462
Summary 462
Contents
464
References for Further Reading
Exercises 465
PARTS
Language in the Computer Age
CHAPTER
12
Computer Processing of Human Language
Machine Translation 472 Text Processing
473
Computers That Talk and Listen 474 The Speech Signal
475 Talking Machines (Speech Synthesis) 477
Knowing What to Say 479 Machines lor
Understanding Speech 4X1 Speech Recognition
482 Speech Understanding 483 Parsing 483
Semantic Processing 486 Pragmatics 487
Computer Models of Grammars 488 Language and
Artificial Intelligence 489 Summary 491
References for Further Reading 492 Exercises 494
APPENDIX
Glossary 499
PART1
The Nature of Human Language
CHAPTER 1
What Is Language?
Linguistic Knowledge 4
Knowledge of the Sound System 4 Knowledge of the
Meaning of Words 5 The Creativity of Linguistic
Knowledge 8 Knowledge of Sentences and Nonscntcnces
10
Linguistic Knowledge and Performance 11
What Is Grammar? 13 Descriptive
Grammars 13 Prescriptive Grammars
14 Teaching Grammars 16
Language Universals 17
Animal "Languages" 18 "Talking" Parrots
19 The Birds and the Bees 20
In the Beginning: The Origin of Language 22 God's Gift to
Mankind? 23 The First Language 23 Human Invention
or the Cries of Nature 24
What We Know About Language 25 Summary 26
References for Further Reading 28 Exercises 29
PART 2
Grammatical Aspects of Language
CHAPTER 2
Morphology: The Words of Language
Dictionaries 36
Contents
41
Classes of Words 3S Lexical
Content Words Function Words
39
Word Sets 39
Morphemes: The Minimal Units of Meaning Bound and
Free Morphemes 42
CHAPTER 3
Prefixes and Suffixes Infixes 44
Circumfixcs 45 Huckles and
Ceives 45
Rules of Word Formation 47 Lexical Gaps
48 Derivational Morphology 48 "Pullet
Surprises" 51
Word Coinage 53
Compounds 53
Meaning of Compounds
Universality of Compounding
Acronyms 56 Blends 56 Back-
Formations 57 Abbreviations 57
Words from Names 57
Grammatical Morphemes 59 Inflectional
Morphemes 60
Exceptions and Supplctions 62 Morphology
and Syntax 63
Summary 64
References for Further Reading
Exercises 66
Syntax: The Sentence Patterns of Language
Grammatical or Ungrammatical 73 What Grammatical ity Is
Based On 73 What Grammaticality Is Not Based On 75
What Else Do You Know About Syntax? 76
Sentence Structure 78 Syntactic Categories 79
Phrase Structure Trees XI More Phrase
Structure Trees S3 The Infinitude of Language
85
Contents
Phrase Structure Rules 87 Growing Trees 89
Trees That Won't Grow 92 More Phrase
Structure Rules 95 Heads of Phrases 96
The Lexicon 97
Subcategorization 98 More Lexical
Differences 99
Transformational Rules 100 Long Distance
Relationships 103 "Wh-" Sentences 104
Recursion Revisited 105
More About Sentence Structure 108
Types of Language 110
Summary 1 12
References for Further Reading 113
Exercises 115
Semantics: The Meanings ofLangua
Word Meanine 124
Semantic Properties 124
Evidence for Semantic Properties 126 Semantic
Properties and the Lexicon 127 More Semantic
Relationships 128
Homonyms and Ambiguity 128
Synonyms and Paraphrases 131
Antonyms 132
Formation of Antonyms
Names 134
Phrase and Sentence Meaning Combining Words into
Sentences Thematic Roles 139 Semantics and Syntax
142 The "Truth" of Sentences 145 Sense and Reference
147
137
When Rules Are Broken 148 Anomaly: No Sense
and Nonsense Metaphor 150 Idioms 152
Discourse Meaning 154
Contents
CHAPTER 5
Pronouns 154
Missing Parts 156
The Articles "the" and "a" 156
Maxims of Conversation 157
Pragmatics 158 Speech Acts 159
Presuppositions 160 Deixis 162
Summary 164
References for Further Reading 166
Exercises 167
Phonetics: The Sounds of Language
Sound Segments 176
Identity of Speech Sounds 178
Spelling and Speech 180 The Phonetic
Alphabet 181
Articulatory Phonetics 186 Airstream
Mechanisms 186 Voiced and Voiceless
Sounds 187 Nasal and Oral Sounds 189
Places of Articulation 191
Labials 191
Interdentals 192
Alveolars 192
Velars 192
Palatals 192
Coronals 192 Manners of Articulation 193
Stops and Continuants 193
Aspirated and Unaspirated Sounds 194
Fricatives 195
Affricates 196
Liquids 197
Glides 197
Syllabic Sounds 198 Vowels 199
Tongue Position 200
Lip Rounding 200
Diphthongs 202
Nasalisation of Vowels 202 Prosodic Supra-
segmental Features 203
Contents
CHAPTER 6
Long and Short (Tense and Lax Vowels) 203 "lone and
Intonation 204 Diacritics 206
Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants 2C
Summary 210
References for Further Reading 211
Exercises 212
Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language
Phonemes: The Phonological Units of Language 217 Minimal Pairs
2 IS Free Variation 220
Distinctive Features 221 Binary Valued Features 221
Sounds That Are Not Phonemes 222 Phonemes.
Phones, and Allophoncs 223
Complementary Distribution 224 Predictability of
Redundant Features 225 Unpredictability of Phonemic
Features 227
More on Redundancies 22s!
Sequential Constraints 230 Syllable
Structure 231
Natural Classes 232
Major Class Features 233
Obstruents and Sonorants 233 ] +
consonantal] Sounds 234 | + syllabic]
Sounds 234 Sibilants 2.35
Feature Specilications lor American English Consonants and
Vowels 235
More on Prosodie Phonology 237
Intonation 237
Word Stress 23S
Sentence and Phrase Stress 239
The Rules of Phonology 241
The Formali/.ation ot Phonological Rules
Assimilation Rules 244
Dissimilation Rules 246
Feature Addition Rules 247
Segment Deletion and Addition Rules 24S
Movement (Metathesis) Rules 249
Contents
From One to Many and from Many to One 250
The Function of Phonological Rules 253
Slips ot the Tongue: Evidence tor Phonological Rules
The F'ron uncial ion of Morphemes 255 Morphophoneinics
257 More Sequential Constraints 25')
Summary 261
References for Further Reading 263
Exercises 265
PARTS
Social Aspects of Language
CHAPTER 7
Language in Society
Dialects 275
Regional Dialects 276 Accents
277
Dialects of English 27S
Phonological Differences 279 Lexical
Differences 2SO Dialect Atlases 2SO
Syntactic Differences 2X1
The "Standard" 283 Language
Purists 2S3 Banned Languages
2X4
Black English 2^7
Phonology of Black Lnglish 2! Syntactic Differences
between BL and SAL 1W
Double Negative 2S9
Deletion of the Verb "Be" IW
Habitual "Be" 2W History of
Black Lnglish
Hispanic English 292 Lingua
Erancas 294
Pidgins and Creoles 295 Pidgins
295 Creoles 29S
Styles. Slang, and Jargon 299
Styles 299
Contents
CHAPTER 8
Slang 300 Jargon and Argot
301
Taboo or Not Taboo 302 Euphemisms 304
Racial and National Epithets 306
Language and Sexism 306
Marked and Unmarked Forms 307 The Generic
"He" 309 More Asymmetries 310 Female
Language 310
Summary 312
References for Further Reading 313
Exercises 315
Language Change: The Syllables of Time
The Regularity of Sound Change 322
Phonological Change 324 Phonological
Rules 325 The Great Vowel Shift
326
Morphological Change 327 Syntactic
Change 330
Lexical Change 332 New Words
332 Borrowings 332 Loss of
Words 336 Semantic Change
336
Broadening 336
Narrowing 337
Mcanini; Shifts 337
337
Reconstructing "Dead" Languages The
Comparative Method 341 Historical
Evidence 342
344
The Genetic Classification of Languages Why
Do Languages Change? 348 Languages of
the World 350 Summary 355
References for Further Reading 355
Exercises 357
Contents
CHAPTER 9
Writing: The ABCs of Language
The History of Writing 364 Pictograms and
Ideograms 364 Cuneiform Writing 366 The
Rebus Principle 368 From Hieroglyphs to the
Alphabet 369
Modern Writing Systems 370 Word Writing
371 Syllabic Writing 373 Alphabetic Writing
374
Writing and Speech 377
Spelling 379
Spelling Pronunciations 383
Summary 384
References for Further Reading 385
Exercises 386
PART 4
Biological Aspects of Language
CHAPTER 10
Language Acquisition
Stages in Language Acquisition 394 The First Sounds
395 Babbling 396 First Words 397 The Two-Word
Stage 399 From Telegraph to Infinity 400
Theories of Child Language Acquisition 402 Do Children Learn by
Imitation? 402 Do Children Learn by Reinforcement? 403
Children Form Rules and Construct a Grammar 404 Errors or
Rules? 406
Inflectional Errors 407
Phonological and Morphological Rule Acquisition The
Acquisition of Syntax 408 Learning the Meaning of Words
410
The Biological Foundations of Language Acquisition The
"Innateness Hypothesis" 411 The "Critical Age Hypothesis"
413
Contents xv
The Acquisition of Bird Songs 414
Sign Languages: Evidence for the Biology of Language 415 American
Sign Language (ASL) 416 The Acquisition of ASL 420
Learning a Second (or Third or . . .) Language 421 Theories of Second
Language Acquisition 423
Can Chimps Learn Human Language? 424 Gua 426 Viki
426 Washoe 426 Sarah 427
Learning Ycrkish 427 Koko 427
Nim Chimpsky 427 Clever Hans
428 Kan/.i 429
Summary 430
References for Further Reading 432
Exercises 433
Human Processing: Brain, Mind, and Language
The Human Brain 437
The Two Sides of the Brain 437 Evidence for
Brain Lateral ization 441 Aphasia Studies 442
Split Brains 446 More Laterali/.ation Evidence
449
The Evolution of Language 450 The
Autonomy of Language 451
The Linguistic Mind at Work: Human Language Processing
453 Comprehension 454
Comprehension Models and Experimental Studies 455 Speech
Production 458
Planning Units 459
Lexical Selection 460
Application and Misapplication of Rules 461
Nonlinguistic Influences 462
Summary 462
Contents
464
References for Further Reading
Exercises 465
PARTS
Language in the Computer Age
CHAPTER
12
Computer Processing of Human Language
Machine Translation 472 Text Processing
473
Computers That Talk and Listen 474 The Speech Signal
475 Talking Machines (Speech Synthesis) 477
Knowing What to Say 479 Machines lor
Understanding Speech 4X1 Speech Recognition
482 Speech Understanding 483 Parsing 483
Semantic Processing 486 Pragmatics 487
Computer Models of Grammars 488 Language and
Artificial Intelligence 489 Summary 491
References for Further Reading 492 Exercises 494
APPENDIX
Glossary 499